Photo Credit: Levi Meir Clancy Unsplash.

Antisemitism:

A Personal Reflection and Historical Exploration

Growing up in Aleppo, Syria, in the early 1960s, I was immersed in a world that thrived on diversity and coexistence. Aleppo, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities on Earth, was a true mosaic of peoples and traditions, where Armenians, Jews, Christians, Kurds, and Muslims of various sects lived side by side. It was a city where history breathed through its ancient streets, and this vibrant cultural patchwork enriched our lives. It felt like a remnant of a time when the world was less divided by borders, ideologies, and conflicts.

My father, a survivor of the Ottoman Turkish genocide of Armenians, Greeks, and Assyrians during 1915, carried both the scars of history and the wisdom it had imparted. After fleeing with my grandmother to Syria, he rebuilt his life, refusing to be defined by hatred or fear. He believed in fairness, openness, and respect for all, regardless of their background. “A person’s worth is in their values and character, not their creed,” he often reminded me. This was not just his mantra but a guiding principle for how we lived in Aleppo, where he conducted business with Jewish merchants, Kurdish farmers, and Christian tradesmen alike.

Walking with my father through the city’s markets, we would pass through the Jewish Quarter, where the Aleppo Synagogue stood as a proud symbol of the city’s multicultural soul. The synagogue, also known as the Great Synagogue of Aleppo, was a center of Jewish life dating back to the 5th century. It housed the Aleppo Codex, one of the most important manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible, making the synagogue both a religious and cultural landmark. The hum of prayers, the ancient stones, and the architecture told stories of a community that had lived and thrived there for generations.

In my childhood, Aleppo was a place where differences didn’t divide us — they enriched us. The Armenians were known for their craftsmanship, the Jews for their trade and scholarship, and the Arabs and Kurds for their connection to the land. The city’s tapestry was woven from these threads, and it felt as though nothing could tear it apart.

The Aleppo Codex (Hebrew: כֶּתֶר אֲרָם צוֹבָא, Keṯer ʾĂrām-Ṣōḇāʾ, meaning “Crown of Aleppo”), Deuteronomy is a medieval manuscript of the Hebrew Bible, written in Tiberias around 920 CE under the Abbasid Caliphate. Maimonides praised the codex for its accuracy, saying it is a vital representative of the Masoretic Text tradition, alongside the Leningrad Codex. Central Synagogue of Aleppo, also known as Al-Bandara Synagogue, is an ancient synagogue in Aleppo, Syria. It was built in the 9th century AD and was later expanded in the 15th and 16th centuries AD. The synagogue is the original place of the Aleppo codex, a manuscript of the Hebrew Bible written in the 10th century AD. Photo Credit: Wikipedia.

For five centuries, it was safeguarded in the Central Synagogue of Aleppo until 1947, when the synagogue was attacked during anti-Jewish riots. When the codex resurfaced in Israel in 1958, approximately 40% of it, including much of the Torah section, was missing. While originally believed to have been destroyed in the synagogue fire, speculation has grown that the missing pages might survive in private hands.

The surviving portion of the codex is now housed at the Shrine of the Book in the Israel Museum.

But then came 1967 and the Six-Day War. Almost overnight, the vibrant Jewish Quarter of Aleppo was emptied. Anti-Zionist marches filled the streets, banners proclaiming hostility toward Israel dominated the public sphere, and suddenly, neighbors who had lived peacefully alongside one another for centuries were gone. The Jewish families, who had lived in Aleppo for centuries, emigrated to Israel, leaving behind their homes, businesses, and the Aleppo Synagogue, which was shuttered and silenced.

The absence left a deep void, not just in the physical space but in the soul of Aleppo itself. The market stalls, once run by Jewish merchants, were closed, and the synagogue, once full of life and prayer, stood in eerie stillness. For the first time, Aleppo felt incomplete to me, as though a part of its history and character had vanished.

Reflecting on those years, I now understand how the departure of Aleppo’s Jewish community was not just a loss for them but for all of us who had lived in the city’s embrace. It was a warning of what happens when division seeps into the foundations of a community. As British historian Arnold Toynbee once observed, “Civilizations die from suicide, not by murder.” In Aleppo, I saw this unfold firsthand — how fear of the “other” can dismantle even the strongest social bonds.

The Roots of Antisemitism: An Ancient and Persistent Hatred

Antisemitism is not simply a prejudice; it is a persistent and destructive force that has plagued humanity for millennia. Holocaust survivor and Nobel Laureate Elie Wiesel once said, “The opposite of love is not hate; it’s indifference.” In Aleppo, as in countless other places throughout history, indifference allowed antisemitism to grow unchecked, leading to the collapse of a community that had contributed so much to the city’s identity.

The Ancient World: Babylon, Egypt, and Rome

Antisemitism’s roots stretch back to the ancient world, where Jews were often viewed with suspicion due to their distinct religious practices and cultural identity. In Babylon and Egypt, Jews faced periodic waves of hostility. In Egypt, Jews were sometimes perceived as outsiders, and religious and cultural differences often fueled tensions. The Roman Empire, which conquered Judea, exhibited both tolerance and hostility toward Jews. Following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, Jews were dispersed across the Roman world, and anti-Jewish sentiment grew as political and religious conflicts escalated.

History of Antisemitism in Europe: Antisemitism in Europe has a long and tragic history, spanning from religious persecution in medieval times to economic scapegoating and culminating in the atrocities of the Holocaust during World War II. Rooted in centuries of stereotypes, discrimination, and conspiracy theories, it evolved through various forms — from the Christian Middle Ages, where Jews were blamed for societal ills, to modern times, where political and financial conspiracy theories targeted Jewish communities. Despite efforts to combat it, antisemitism persists in some parts of society today, a reminder of the importance of education, tolerance, and unity. Photo Credit: Wikipedia.

Christian Europe: Theological Antagonism and Persecution

As Christianity became the dominant religion in Europe, theological tensions between Jews and Christians deepened. Christian doctrine, particularly the belief that Jews were responsible for the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, fueled centuries of persecution. Jews were often scapegoated for societal ills, leading to expulsions, massacres, and forced conversions. The Crusades marked one of the darkest periods for Jews in Christian Europe, as Crusaders targeted Jewish communities. Blood libel accusations — false claims that Jews used Christian children’s blood in religious rituals — emerged during this time and persisted for centuries.

The Ottoman Empire: A Refuge and Challenges for Jews

The Ottoman Empire, spanning from the late 13th century to the early 20th century, provided a more tolerant environment for Jews compared to Christian Europe. Jews were granted “dhimmi” status, meaning they were protected by non-Muslims who paid a tax in exchange for practicing their religion. Many Jews, especially following the Spanish Inquisition in 1492, found refuge in the Ottoman Empire and thrived in cities like Istanbul, Salonica, and Aleppo. However, even in the Ottoman world, antisemitism was never absent. Blood libel accusations occasionally surfaced, and Jews were often treated as second-class citizens despite relative tolerance.

Moneylending and Medieval Europe: A Complex Relationship

In medieval Europe, the Church prohibited Christians from engaging in usury — charging interest on loans — based on biblical interpretations. This prohibition created a challenge for economic activities, especially trade and development. Jews, however, were not subject to these same laws. Jewish religious law permitted the charging of interest to non-Jews, which allowed Jews to engage in moneylending. This profession became one of the few available to them due to land ownership and guild participation restrictions.

While some Jewish moneylenders accumulated wealth, the majority of Jewish communities remained poor and vulnerable. Resentment toward Jewish moneylenders grew, as indebted monarchs and nobles often targeted Jewish communities as a way to absolve themselves from their debts, sometimes leading to expulsions and persecution. Stereotypes of Jews as greedy and manipulative, often fueled by economic necessity and religious prejudice, became deeply entrenched during this period.

History of Antisemitism in Russia, the USSR, and Today: Antisemitism in Russia has deep roots, marked by violent pogroms in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which targeted Jewish communities and caused widespread devastation. Under the Soviet Union, while the state officially promoted atheism and internationalism, antisemitism persisted, with Jews often marginalized and subjected to purges, especially during Stalin’s regime. The infamous “Doctors’ Plot” of the 1950s, which falsely accused Jewish doctors of conspiring to harm Soviet leaders, reflected deeply ingrained stereotypes. Today, antisemitism in Russia continues in the form of xenophobia, hate speech, and conspiracy theories, though its manifestations have evolved with the political landscape. Photo Credit: Wikipedia and social media sources.

Antisemitism in Russia and the Soviet Union

In Russia, antisemitism took on a particularly violent form in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Pogroms — organized massacres of Jews — swept through the Russian Empire, fueled by economic hardship, political instability, and long-standing religious prejudices. Tsarist policies, such as the May Laws of 1882, restricted Jewish settlement and economic participation, forcing Jews into overcrowded ghettos and creating fertile ground for further persecution.

After the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, antisemitism persisted despite the Soviet Union’s official policy of state atheism and internationalism. Although Jews were initially active in the revolutionary movement, Stalin’s regime later purged Jewish intellectuals. It targeted them as part of the so-called “Doctors’ Plot,” accusing Jewish doctors of conspiring to poison Soviet leaders. This conspiracy played into traditional antisemitic stereotypes and further marginalized Jews in Soviet society. The Soviet government also pursued an anti-Zionist policy, equating Zionism with bourgeois nationalism and suppressing Jewish cultural and religious expression.

The Rise of Modern Antisemitism: Conspiracy Theories and the Rothschilds

In the 19th century, the success of Jewish financiers, particularly the Rothschild family, gave rise to a new form of antisemitism — one based on conspiracy theories. Jews were accused of controlling global finance and manipulating world events. These baseless accusations laid the groundwork for the antisemitic rhetoric that would reach its zenith under Nazi Germany.

Antisemitism in Europe: Hitler, Germany, and the Nazis: Antisemitism reached its horrific peak under Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime in Germany. Building on centuries of European prejudice, the Nazis propagated virulent racial antisemitism, portraying Jews as an existential threat to “Aryan” purity and society. This ideology culminated in the Holocaust, where six million Jews were systematically murdered during World War II. The Nazis used propaganda, pseudoscience, and deeply rooted antisemitic stereotypes to justify their genocidal policies, leaving an indelible scar on human history and a powerful reminder of the dangers of hatred and intolerance. Photo Credit: Wikipedia.

Nazi Germany and the Holocaust: The Final Solution

The Holocaust was the culmination of centuries of antisemitism, where the Nazis weaponized these ancient hatreds to justify the systematic murder of six million Jews. Nazi ideology, built on pseudoscientific racial theories, portrayed Jews as an existential threat to Aryan civilization. This genocidal hatred was fueled by propaganda that blamed Jews for Germany’s political and economic crises, leading to the enactment of the Nuremberg Laws and the implementation of the “Final Solution.”

Zionism and the Creation of Israel

In response to centuries of persecution, the late 19th century saw the rise of Zionism, a Jewish nationalist movement advocating for the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine. Theodor Herzl, often regarded as the father of modern political Zionism, envisioned a homeland where Jews could escape European antisemitism. Following the Holocaust, international sympathy for Jewish suffering contributed to the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. However, antisemitism did not disappear; it evolved, with some criticisms of Israel’s policies blending with traditional antisemitic stereotypes.

Antisemitism Today: Antisemitism remains a troubling issue in modern society, manifesting in various forms, including hate crimes, conspiracy theories, and online hate speech. While it draws from centuries-old prejudices, today’s antisemitism often disguises itself in political rhetoric or criticisms of Jewish influence, particularly around issues related to Israel. With rising incidents of violence targeting Jewish communities around the world, combating antisemitism requires vigilance, education, and a collective commitment to fostering tolerance and understanding. Photo Credit: Wikipedia, US State Department Report, and other social media sources.

Antisemitism in the Present Day

Today, antisemitism persists in various forms, from far-right extremism to left-wing political movements. Conspiracy theories about Jewish control of finance and politics, particularly surrounding the Rothschild family, remain disturbingly widespread on the internet. In the 21st century, antisemitism has reemerged in various guises. While some of it takes the form of traditional right-wing extremism, where Jews are blamed for global conspiracies or political and financial manipulation, antisemitism has also surfaced in left-wing political movements. In these contexts, legitimate criticisms of Israel’s policies can sometimes morph into antisemitic rhetoric, blending age-old tropes about Jewish global control with modern political critiques of Zionism. The line between anti-Zionism and antisemitism becomes dangerously blurred when criticisms of the Israeli state invoke stereotypes or accuse Jews collectively of the actions of the Israeli government.

WSJ Antisemitism Global Index Map: This map from the Wall Street Journal illustrates the prevalence of antisemitic sentiments and incidents across different regions of the world. It highlights the varying degrees of antisemitism, from hate speech and conspiracy theories to violent attacks targeting Jewish communities. The map serves as a visual reminder of the global nature of antisemitism and the ongoing challenges in combating prejudice, hatred, and intolerance in all its forms. Photo Credit: WSJ.

The internet, in particular, has provided a breeding ground for the spread of antisemitic conspiracy theories. From the notion of Jewish control over world finances to Holocaust denial, the digital world has amplified dangerous myths that have persisted for centuries. The anonymity and reach of online platforms have enabled these harmful ideas to spread more rapidly and widely than ever before.

Moreover, antisemitic violence and hate crimes have surged in recent years. Across Europe and North America, Jewish communities have experienced attacks on synagogues, desecrations of Jewish cemeteries, and an increase in verbal and physical assaults. These acts of violence serve as stark reminders that antisemitism is not a relic of the past but a persistent threat that continues to endanger Jewish lives and communities.

Antisemitism in Turkey has evolved over centuries and has been influenced by religious, political, and social factors. During the Ottoman Empire, Jews were granted “dhimmi” status, which offered them protection but also imposed certain restrictions. While the Jewish community generally thrived under Ottoman rule, instances of antisemitism, such as blood libel accusations, occasionally surfaced. In the modern era, Turkey’s Jewish population has faced fluctuating levels of hostility. During the early 20th century and the formation of the Turkish Republic, Jews were largely integrated into society, but antisemitic sentiment grew during times of political tension, especially in the 1930s and 1940s. The ‘Wealth Tax’ of 1942 disproportionately targeted non-Muslims, including Jews and Armenians, causing significant economic hardship. In 1942, incidents such as the Thrace Pogrom also demonstrated antisemitism’s occasional violent manifestations. Today, while Turkey’s Jewish community is smaller and less visible, antisemitism persists, often surfacing in the form of conspiracy theories and anti-Israel rhetoric. At times, these sentiments blur the lines between political criticism of Israel and traditional antisemitic stereotypes. Despite the challenges, Turkey’s Jewish community maintains its religious and cultural identity in a complex socio-political landscape. Photo Credit: Wikipedia and social media sources.

Conclusion

Antisemitism has a long and deeply troubling history, evolving and adapting through different eras and political contexts. From the ancient suspicions of Jewish distinctiveness in Babylon, Egypt, and Rome, through the theological persecution in Christian Europe, to the racial hatred of Nazi Germany, antisemitism has taken many forms. Still, it has always been rooted in fear, ignorance, and scapegoating.

Despite the many efforts to combat it, antisemitism remains deeply embedded in some segments of global society. Its modern manifestations, from conspiracy theories to the blending of anti-Zionism with antisemitic rhetoric, show that this ancient hatred continues to evolve, finding new ways to spread and take root in the present day.

Understanding the history of antisemitism is crucial in the ongoing fight against it. Awareness of the ways it has been used to justify violence, exclusion, and genocide throughout history is essential in recognizing and dismantling its modern incarnations. As the world becomes more interconnected and diverse, the challenge remains to foster empathy and understanding, to counter hatred with knowledge, and to ensure that Jewish communities — like all communities — can live free from fear and discrimination.

As I reflect on my personal experiences growing up in Aleppo and witnessing the disappearance of its Jewish community, I am reminded of the fragility of coexistence. The lessons from Aleppo and from the broader history of antisemitism underscore the importance of standing against hatred in all its forms. We must continue to be vigilant and active in protecting the multicultural fabric of our societies. As Martin Luther King Jr. said, “Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.” The fight against antisemitism is part of the broader fight for justice and human dignity, one that requires all of us to remain engaged, informed, and compassionate.

Antisemitism may be an ancient hatred, but its persistence today means the struggle against it is more urgent than ever. Only through collective effort, education, and empathy can we hope to finally overcome the prejudices and myths that have led to so much suffering for many centuries. In honoring the memory of those who have been lost to antisemitic violence and persecution, we must commit ourselves to building a future where such hatred no longer has a place in our world.

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